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TOEFL Grrammar Part 9: Stative Passives and Prepositions

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Stative Passives


Stative passives are verb-like words that follow "be" in sentences and function as adjectives. See the examples below:
    He is hungry.
    He is interested
    His leg is broken
    (Adjective)
    (Stative passive)
    (Stative passive)
Stative passives indicate a status or condition which may exist over a period of time. In contrast, action verbs often indicate a change from one status to another.
    We got married in 1998.
    We are married now.
    Jack broke the window.
    The window is broken.
    (Action: We changed from "single" to "married.")
    Status: Our current condition is "married.")
    (Action: Indicates what happened at a given moment.)
    (Status: Indicates the condition of the window.)
Note how the action/status contrast works with other verbs:
    Jared fell asleep.
    Jared is asleep.
    Joan became sick.
    Joan is sick.
    The building caught fire.
    The building is on fire now.
    The doctor came in.
    The doctor is in.
    (Action: Change in status from "awake" to "asleep").
    (Status: Indicates Jared's current condition.)
    (Action: Joan changed from "healthy" to "sick.")
    (Status: Joan's present condition.)
    (Action: Indicates the point when the fire started.)
    (Status: Indicates the condition of the building.)
    (Action)
    (Status)
Stative passives are often used with prepositional expressions.
    She is interested in photography.
    Brad was worried about his mother.
    Carmen is terrified of snakes.
    Everyone was caught up in the excitement.
Some adjectives also fit in the same pattern:
    Karen is fond of chocolates.
    I'm crazy about sports cars.
    You're full of baloney.


Prepositions

Prepositions indicate relationships between words or ideas. Most prepositions deal with location and are easy to learn.
above
inside
beside
near
up
before*
with
into
between
like
despite

below
outside
beyond
nearby
down
after*
without
out (of)
among
as
in spite of

over
around
behind
by
toward
during
within
off
except
than
beneath

under
through
in front of
next to
along (side)
since*
until*
upon
but*
about
underneath

*These can also be used as conjunctions.
Some prepositions, however, have more than one meaning and can be very confusing.




at      in     to
for     on    from

>> Generally, in, on and at indicate location.
>> To and from imply movement toward or away from something. However, to can also function as part of an infinitive.
>> To and for can introduce indirect objects.
>> For and since can also indicate duration.
>> Of is used in partitives (all of, some of . . .) and other expressions.
>> Many prepositions are also used in expressions


See Also:




TOEFL Grammar Part 8 Gerunds and Infinitives

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Gerunds

Gerunds are defined as the -ing form of a verb. They have several functions.
1. Used as subjects and complements
Skiing is my favorite sport.
Hiking can be very strenuous.
Seeing is believing
2. Used as objects following prepositions and prepositional expressions
Thanks for tending my children.
The job consists of typing, filing, and answering the phone.
3. Used as objects following certain verbs.*
The children enjoyed watching the parade.
Ms. Terrell avoided paying her taxes until it was too late.
Gerunds can sometimes take objects of their own:
Roland is afraid of making mistakes.
Sandy is considering leaving New York.

*These verbs are commonly followed by gerunds.
admit
begin
discuss
hate
love
practice
regret
stop

advise
can't help
dislike
hesitate
mention
prefer
remember
suggest

anticipate
complete
enjoy
imagine
mind
quit
resent
threaten

appreciate
consider
finish
intend
miss
recall
resist
tolerate

attempt
delay
forget
keep
neglect
recollect
risk
try

avoid
deny
go
like
postpone
recommend
start
understand

Infinitives

Infinitives are defined as to + base form of the verb. They have several functions.
1. Used as subjects and subject complements.
To know me is to love me.
To live in Hawaii is my lifetime dream.
2. Used as objects following certain verbs.*
I wanted to tell you how much I appreciated your gift.
He hesitated to ask the embarrassing question.
3. Used as a shortened form of in order to.
You must take this medicine (in order) to get well.
I went to the bank to cash a check.

Infinitives can sometimes take objects of their own.
We hope to find the person who did this.
I was asked to make a dessert for the potluck dinner.

*These verbs are commonly followed by infinitives.
afford
beg
decide
forget
intend
mean
prepare
seem
threaten

agree
begin
demand
go
know how
need
pretend
start
try

appear
care
deserve
happen
learn
neglect
promise
stop
volunteer

arrange
choose
desire
hate
like
offer
refuse
struggle
wait

ask
claim
expect
hesitate
love
plan
regret
swear
want

attempt
consent
fail
hope
manage
prefer
remember
tend
wish

See Also:

TOEFL Grammar Part 7: Noun Clauses and Embedded Questions

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Noun Clause

Noun clause used as an object

he said something
S    V      O                 what did he said?

he said that he was sick


Noun Clause as a Subject

something is your bussiness
         S       V                               what is your bussiness?

whatever you do is your bussiness

someone is still in cafetaria
         S       V                                 who is in the cafetaria?

the subordinator may take  the "subject" or "object" position in a noun clause.


Note the usage of the following:

Henry loves Mary (S V O)                             Mary is the "object" of the sentence
Mary loves Jim (S V O)                                 Mary is the "subject" of the sentence
The person who(m) Lee loves is a secret        Relative clause (subordinator in obj. position)
The person who loves Tim is a secret             Relative clause (subordinator in obj. position)
whom(m) Henry loves is a secret                    Relative clause (subordinator in obj. position)
who loves Tim is a secret                               Relative clause (subordinator in obj. position)

Subordinators which are used in noun clauses:

that
what
who
whoever
whatever
whether

which
where
when
how
why
if

how much
how many
how long
how far
how often
whose
Remember to preserve word order in noun clauses:
I don't know who he is.
Whoever she is is not important.
Whatever is in the box is a mystery.
Can you tell me what he is doing?
She doesn't undestand why he is leaving.
I wonder how much that costs.
Do you know how long it will take?

Embedded Questions

Embedded questions are questions within another statement or question. They function as noun clauses and as such should generally follow statement, not question, order.
What time is it?
I know what time is it.
I know what time it is.
Where did she go?
I don't know where did she go.
I don't know where she went.
What does he do for a living?
I wonder what does he do.
I wonder what he does.
Who is she?
Can you tell me who is she?
Can you tell me who she is?

(question order)
(Incorrect)
(Statement order: S+ V)
(Question)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
(Question)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
(Question)
(Incorrect)
(Correct)
When using adjectives as complements, it is okay to use question order for embedded questions:
Who's hungry?
I wonder who is hungry.

(Question)
(Okay)
In some cases, depending on the focus of the sentence, question order may be used:
Who is the doctor?
I know who the doctor is.
Who is a doctor?

TOEFL Grammar part 6: Parellelism and Inversions.

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parallelism

Parallelism means that words used in pairs or groups should all have the same gram-matical form (verbs and verbs; nouns, nouns, and nouns; gerunds and gerunds, etc.) When using words or phrases with coordinating conjunctions or in a series, make sure that they follow the same grammatical structure. 
For example:
    Terry likes swimming and to dive.
    Terry likes swimming and diving.
    Terry likes to swim and (to) dive.
    I'm taking history, math, and chemical.
    I'm taking history, math, and chemistry.
    (Incorrect: not parallel)
    (Correct)
    (Correct)
    (Incorrect)
    (Correct)
Sometimes repeated words, such as auxiliary verbs, can be deleted in parallel constructions.
    Example:
    I have been to Paris and saw the Eiffel Tower.
    I have been to Paris and have seen the Eiffel Tower.
    I have been to Paris and seen the Eiffel Tower.
    Is she coming to the party or go to a movie?
    Is she coming to the party or going to a movie?

    Inversion

    When to Invert the Subject and Verb:
    1. Questions
    2. Negatives
    3. (Necessary) Prepositional Phrases of Place
    4. Conditionals
    5. Comparisons

    1. Questions

      2. He is a doctor.
      He ate an apple.
      Is he a doctor?
      Did he eat an apple?
      (Direct inversion)
      (With "do")

    2. Negatives

      3. He is a doctor.
      He ate an apple.
      Not only is he a doctor, (but) he is also a millionaire.
      Not only did he eat an apple, (but) he also ate an orange.

    3. Prepositional Phrases of Place (Necessary)

      4. On the table is a book.
      On the table (there) is a book.
      The prepositional phrase is necessary here, because without it, the sentence would be incomplete: ("is a book" is not a complete sentence.) Inversion is necessary.
      At the restaurant, the food was too spicy.
      (inversion is not necessary)
      Without the prepositional phrase, the sentence the food was too spicy is still complete.
      This structure is typically used with linking verbs (be, appear, seem, etc.) or words that function as linking verbs.
      In the doorway appeared two strangers.
      On the table lies my textbook.
      In the kitchen, he ate an apple.
      In the doorway were two strangers.
      On the table is my textbook.
      (Action verb: no inversion necessary.)

    4. In some situations, the conditional if is omitted and an inversion is used in its place. (Only with verbs, were, should or had.) Note the following 

      examples:
        5. If I were a doctor, I would be rich.
        Were I a doctor, I would be rich.
        If I had taken the subway, I would have arrived on time.
        Had I taken the subway, I would have arrived on time.
        If you should have any questions, please feel free to contact me.
        Should you have any questions, please feel free to contact me.
        If I had known you were coming, I would have baked a cake.
        Had I known you were coming, I would have baked a cake.
        If I go to Chicago, I will visit my grandmother.
        Go I to Chicago, I will visit my grandmother. (Incorrect)
        If I have enough money, I will buy a horse.
        Have I enough money, I will buy a horse. (Incorrect)

    5. Comparisons with than may also be inverted, but the inversion is optional. Note the following examples.

        6. He has more marbles than John does.
        He has more marbles than does John.
        He has more marbles than John. (informal okay.)
      **Be careful. On the TOEFL, when comparisons are used, sometimes important words are left out or in error, thereby requiring only one of the possible options.


    (Incorrect)
    (Okay)
    (Better)
    (Incorrect)
    (Correct) 



TOEFL Grammar Part 5: Participial Phrases and Introductory Phrases

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Practical Phrase

In Time Clauses:

Example:
While I was coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.
can be:
While coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.
Coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.

When she opened the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.
can be:
When opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.
Opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.

Before he left the house, Mr. Russo remembered to turn off the oven.
can be:
Before leaving the house, Mr. Russo remembered to turn off the oven.

Important Note:
*Make sure the subject of the main clause and the subject of the participial phrase are the same.
      > While taking a shower, my sister called from California. (INCORRECT)
         While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California.
         While taking a shower, I received a call from my sister in California.

In Absolutes:

The vase was knocked over by the cat. It lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.
can be:
Knocked over by the cat, the vase lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.

The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, and it left the crumbs for the cockroaches.
can be:
The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, leaving the crumbs for the cockroaches.

The little boy was lost and afraid. He called for his mother.
can be:
The little boy, lost and afraid, called for his mother.
Lost and afraid, the little boy called for his mother.

see more about Clause and Phrase


Introductory Phrase

Introductory phrases and clauses

    Example:
    John invited Mary to a movie. Mary had seen the movie twice already. Mary was reluctant to accept John's invitation.
    Because she had seen the movie twice already, Mary was reluctant to accept John's invitation (to the movie).
    it can be:
    Having seen the movie twice already, Mary was reluctant to accept John's invitation.

Intermediary phrases and clauses

    Example:
    Senator James humbly submitted his resignation. The press hounded Senator James for months on charges of tax evasion.
    it can be:
    > Senator James, whom the press hounded for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his   
        resignation.
    > Senator James, who was hounded by the press for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his 
       resignation.
    > Senator James, hounded by the press for months on charges of tax evasion, humbly submitted his resignation.

Other

    Example:
    Mr. Smith swept the floor. Mr. Smith dusted the shelves. Mr. Smith turned out the lights. Then he left the building.
    it can be:
    > Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before he left the building.
    > Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights before leaving the building.
    > Before leaving the building, Mr. Smith swept the floor, dusted the shelves, and turned out the lights.
    > After sweeping the floor, dusting the shelves, and turning out the lights, Mr. Smith left the building.
    > Having swept the floor, dusted the shelves and turned out the lights, Mr. Smith left the building.


    See Also:

TOEFL Grammar Part 4: Reduced Relative Clauses and Reducing Adverbial Clauses

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Reductive Relative Clause


You may delete the relative pronoun and the be verb when:

1. they are followed by a prepositional phrase.
    A)  The man who is in the house is my father.
          (The man in the house is my father.)
    B) The books that are on the desk are mine
         (The books on the desk are mine.)

2. the main verb in the relative clause is progressive.
    A) The man who is swimming in the lake is my father.
        (The man swimming in the lake is my father.)
    B) The books that are lying on the floor are mine.
         (The books lying on the floor are mine.)

You may NOT delete the relative pronoun and the be verb when :

    1. they are followed by an adjective:
    The man who is angry is my father
    X The man angry is my father
    (However, you may switch the positions of the adjective and noun.)
    The angry man is my father. (okay)

    2. they are followed by a noun:
    The man who is a doctor is my father.
    X The man a doctor is my father.

The relative pronoun can be deleted if there is a new subject and verb following it:

    A. This is the house that Jack built.
    B. This is the house Jack built.

    A. The person whom you see is my father.
    B. The person you see is my father.

    A. This is the place where I live.
    B. This is the place I live.

    A. I don't know the reason why she is late.
    B. I don't know the reason she is late
    (Also : I don't know why she is late. )

    A. The woman whom he likes is married.
    B. The woman he likes is married.

    Notes:
    Do not delete a relative pronoun that is followed by a verb other than be:
    The man who likes lasagna is my father.
    X The man likes lasagna is my father.
    Never delete the relative pronoun whose:
    The man whose car broke down went to the station.
    X The man car broke down went to the station.

see more about relative clause here!

Reducting Adverbial Clauses

Same time

Time clauses with "while" and "when" can be reduced by deleting the subject and "be" verb.
    Example:
    > While I was eating dinner, I watched television.
    > While eating dinner, I watched television.
    > When you are in Rome, (you) do as the Romans do.
    > When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

If there is no "be" verb, change the verb in the subordinating clause to its -ing form. Sometimes the subordinator (when or while) can be deleted as well.
    Example:
    > When I opened the door, I saw a strange sight.
    >When opening the door, I saw a strange sight.
    > Opening the door, I saw a strange sight.

Note: If the subjects are different, you may not reduce the adverbial clause.
    > While I was taking a shower, my sister called from California.
       While taking a shower, my sister called from California (Incorrect)

Be careful when reducing time clauses that come at the end of sentences.
Example:
    > We saw many beautiful birds while we were fishing in the lake.
    > We saw many beautiful birds while fishing in the lake.
       We saw many beautiful birds fishing in the lake. (incorrect)
In the last sentence, the meaning is ambiguous: Are we fishing or are the birds fishing?

Different times

    Example:
    > After I finished my homework, I went to bed.
    > After finishing my homework, I went to bed.
    > After I had finished my homework, I went to bed.
    > After having finished my homework, I went to bed.
    > Having finished my homework, I went to bed.
    > Before he left the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend.
    Before leaving the dance, Jerry said good-bye to his girlfriend.

Other clauses

Sometimes clauses with because can be reduced.
Example: